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The AA/DCFTA aims to boost trade in goods and services between the EU and Ukraine by gradually cutting tariffs and bringing Ukraine's rules in line with those of the EU in certain industrial sectors and agricultural products.

The Association Agreement (AA) between the EU and Ukraine, including a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA), was negotiated between 2007 and 2011, and signed on 21 March and 27 June 2014.

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It is then necessary to make further assumptions about the ball’s angular velocity in order to calculate sliding speeds at the contact patches.

This article will focus on the behaviour of ball bearings at high speed, but much of it is also relevant to roller bearings.

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This will result in the elements orbiting faster than the cage in some regions, and orbiting slower in others, which will lead to ball-cage impacts.

For oil-lubricated contacts this model will give inaccurate results, especially at lower speeds where an oil lubricated contact will behave qualitatively differently.

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I have a background in physics, and prior to joining SMT completed a PhD on the numerical simulation of magnetic nanoparticles.

This model will use all the detailed forces and the advanced friction model detailed for the quasi-static case here and will be discussed in more detail in a later article.

Fjord Nansen is a Polish company specialised in outdoor equipment. Between 2013 and 2014 about 25% of the company's turnover was generated from international sales. A key market is Ukraine. In 2011 the company exported a record 23% of its production there.

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The model is solved by finding the combination of displacements and speeds that give zero force and moment residual around the ball coordinate system axes.

Power losses from an example bearing running at high and medium speeds. ISO 14179 splits power loss into speed-dependant and load-dependant components, whilst the new model provides power loss information in greater detail.

By solving for these additional speeds, it is possible to have a much more accurate description of the sliding speed distribution at the ball-raceway contacts.

When the power loss per unit area in a contact patch exceeds a certain amount, the surface of the raceway is at risk of experiencing smearing damage.

In response to the Russian Federation's illegal annexation of Crimea and Sevastopol in 2014, the decision by the Russian Federation to recognise the non-government-controlled areas of the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts as independent entities in February 2022 (followed later by Kherson and Zaporizhzhia), and the Russian Federation's unprovoked and unjustified full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the EU has introduced a series of trade-related restrictive measures.

The purpose of the Priority Action Plan for 2023-2024 is to outline a set of concrete actions – such as working to include Ukraine in the EU’s Roam Like at Home Area and the Single European Payments Area, and to start negotiations on an Agreement on Conformity Assessment and Acceptance that will allow free circulation for certain industrial goods – to be undertaken by both sides until the end of 2024.

The magnitude of the impact forces and thus the risk of cage failure, will depend of the cage design, cage material and loading conditions.

Cage failure at high speeds is usually a result of fatigue from repeated impacts between the balls and the cage, and sometimes the cage and inner/outer ring.

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The EU has granted Ukraine full trade liberalisation, suspending import duties, quotas and trade defence measures for imports from Ukraine on a temporary basis. This is known as the Autonomous Trade Measures (ATM) Regulation. These measures first entered into force on 4 June 2022 and were renewed for subsequent years on 6 June 2023 and 6 June 2024 respectively. The current measures will remain in force until 5 June 2025. Thanks to these measures, the EU is significantly supporting Ukraine's economy by helping alleviate the difficult situation faced by Ukrainian producers and exporters.

The Priority Action Plan (PAP) (see infographic) for enhanced implementation of the EU-Ukraine DCFTA in 2023-2024 lays down a set of concrete actions to accelerate and monitor the full implementation of the DCFTA, providing Ukraine with further access to the EU Single Market.

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I joined SMT in 2019 and have primarily worked on the development and implementation of high-fidelity analysis methods for rolling element bearings.

Further details about the models underpinning the new high-speed ball bearing analysis can be found in two papers recently published by SMT in Tribology Transactions.

Often this has been done by assuming that either the inner or the outer raceway (depending on bearing speed) is “controlling”, and hence will balance the gyroscopic moment on the ball.

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MASTA has an advanced lubricant model for fully lubricated contacts, considering asperity effects, lubricant rheology, temperature, and pressure.

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At higher speeds the error in the sliding speeds can generate significant errors in the calculation of the frictional forces.

The AA is the main tool for bringing Ukraine and the EU closer together: it promotes deeper political ties, stronger economic links, and respect for common values. It formally entered into force on 1 September 2017 following ratification by all EU Member States.

The suspension of import duties and quotas on Ukrainian exports to the European Union will be extended for another year, following today's adoption by the Council and April 23 vote in the European Parliament.

The Priority Action Plan for 2021-2022 (now updated for 2023-2024) was put in place to spur the implementation process of the DCFTA. Since the European Council granted Ukraine candidate status on 23 June 2022, the EU and Ukraine have reached a new stage in their relationship. In her State of the Union speech in September 2022, Commission President Ursula von der Leyen announced that the European Commission would work together with Ukraine to ensure seamless access to the Single Market.

Another important force to consider is the hydrodynamic rolling force, often neglected in ball bearing models, or misattributed to drag.

The regulation is just one of the measures adopted by the EU in solidarity with Ukraine. More information on other measures is available on the dedicated Commission site.

The extra detail in this new model allows for the accurate prediction of each component of power loss, and hence heat generation in ball bearings.

Ideally, we would like to anticipate such problems before manufacturing anything, hence the use of analytic and numerical methods as part of the design process.

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Immediately we can see that reducing the size of the bearing can negate the impact of higher speeds, but then the ability of the bearing to carry load will be reduced, so compromises must be made.

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The EU and Ukraine meet regularly to discuss issues and best practices and oversee the proper functioning of the Agreement.

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This model can operate in multiple lubrication regimes such as iso-viscous rigid (IVR) and piezo-viscous elastic (PVE, commonly known as EHD/EHL), with the lubrication regime being considered depending on the entrainment speed and pressure at the contact.

Whichever type of bearing is used, if it is not cooled adequately then this can eventually lead to collapse of the fluid film between the element and the raceway, leading to even further heating, and hence damage.

Traditionally gearbox designers would use international standards such as ISO 14179 to estimate power losses, but with this new model it is possible to investigate different bearing geometry, oil rheology, temperatures, loads (including per-element load) or other operating conditions, which goes way beyond the ability of these standards.

Smearing is another phenomenon caused by the contact between the element and raceway and is most likely to occur as an element moves from an unloaded region to a loaded region of the bearing.

Released in MASTA 12, SMT developed its own quasi-static ball bearing model for high-speed situations, with six degrees of freedom included.

Traditionally, quasi-static analytic models of ball bearings used two degrees of freedom, the two displacements of the ball in the radial plane through the ball centre.

The EU is engaging with Ukraine within the framework of the Association Committee in Trade Configuration with a view to encourage Ukraine to comply with the panel conclusions.

To better integrate with the EU market, Ukraine is aligning its legislation to the EU's norms and standards for industrial and agri-food products. Ukraine is also approximating its legislation to the EU's in trade-related areas such as:

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In 2015, Ukraine introduced a 10-year export ban for all unprocessed wood, amending and supplementing a 2005 ban on ten wood species of low commercial relevance. The EU considered this ban to be in violation of the AA/DCFTA, and has raised the issue of the export ban at all levels and on all occasions since 2015. In 2020, the EU requested the establishment of an arbitration panel (the Panel) to settle this dispute. In December 2020, the Panel concluded that the export bans are incompatible with Article 35 of the AA, which forbids export prohibitions.

A simple approach would be to assume that the total coefficient of friction is constant, which is equivalent to Coulomb friction, and approximates dry contact.

The Commission has today proposed to renew the suspension of import duties and quotas on Ukrainian exports to the EU for another year, while reinforcing protection for sensitive EU agricultural products.

Comparison between sliding velocities along the semi-major axis of the contact patch using the two degree-of-freedom model and the new six degree-of-freedom model.

Ceramic elements are lighter and stiffer than steel ones, with the increased elastic modulus reducing the size of the contact area (and hence heat generated) even further, but this will be at the cost of increasing pressure on the raceway.

As well as the two ball displacements in the plane, this new model also treats the ball orbit speed and rotational vector as variables.

Discover how the automotive industry uses a high-fidelity MASTA analysis for NVH in electric vehicle drivetrains. This article explores the interplay of manufacturing errors, gear whine, and resulting noise.

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Heat is generated at the element-raceway contacts because due to the bearing geometry and deflections, the ball or roller will be sliding in certain regions of the contact instead of rolling.

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Ball bearings have a smaller contact area than roller bearings such as CRBs, which means less friction and hence less heat generation, so are often preferred to roller bearings at high speed.

As this transition occurs, the ball’s angular velocity is changed rapidly as the friction increases between the ball and raceways.